Work/Labour and Roma

Written by: Hadewych Brinkman, Marie Kuball, Marieke Lauwrier

Originally Published May 2025

Introduction

Cambridge dictionary gives the noun work three main definitions. Firstly, as an activity in which an individual exerts mental or physical effort, often for remuneration (Work). Furthermore, it is seen as a place where a person goes to carry out their job (Work). Work can also represent the final result of something created through effort, especially a painting, book or music piece (Work). Furthermore, work means the use of energy (which can be human, animal, or mechanical) directed toward achieving a specific goal. When specified to humans; they exert physical and intellectual efforts to produce goods, generate wealth, or create something useful; often associated with the tangible results of such efforts (e.g., the fruits of labour). However, specifically in sociology and economics, it can also be used to refer to a practical activity, labour or activity necessary to sustain society, frequently associated with specific roles or social contexts (e.g., domestic labour, collective labour) (The). Work can also be used to refer to a paid occupation or profession undertaken as a means of livelihood, including trades, crafts, and professional work (Work).

In this entry we will look at the different meanings and interpretations of labour/work cross-linguistically, between Dutch, French and Italian. Besides, this entry will discuss the film Roma and analyse how the concepts of work/labour can be interpreted.

Definitions per language

Dutch

Werk (work) is derived from Germanic werkan, which means do or make. Werk has a more pragmatic meaning than arbeid (labour), it has more of an emphasis on the result of trading, which entails the outcome or product of an exchange of effort for compensation (e.g. money, goods or services). Based on Van Dale, werk has the following meanings: 1) the preparatory work of effort, 2) a task or occupation (often in professional/economic context), and 3) the result of effort put into something (e.g. a work of art, a product) (Van Dale, “werk”).

Arbeid originates from old Dutch, arabeid which has the meaning to suffer or effort. Nowadays it is associated with physical or mental effort in the service of a task (Etymologiebank, arbeid (werk)). Van Dale defines arbeid as follows: 1) human effort aimed at producing goods or services, and 2) paid activity (Van Dale, arbeid).

In Dutch there is a slight distinction between werk and arbeid, the latter has a more formal and economic or legal connotation. For example: arbeidsmarkt (labour/job market) and arbeidsovereenkomst (employment contract). Werk can be used in informal settings and has a broader meaning. It has both paid and unpaid activities, such as vrijwilligerswerk (volunteer work), huiswerk (homework) and kunstwerk (artwork). This also shows that werk can be the product of something, arbeid can have this function as well but it is less common (De schilder heeft zijn arbeid tentoongesteld – “The painter has exhibited his work”, Van Dale).

French

The French verb travailler, ‘to work’, stems from the Latin trepalium, a torture device, which in late Latin developed into the verb trepaliare (Définitions : travailler). The noun travaille, and its plural travaux, takes several definitions. Three important ones are: 1) Human activity which links to the production, creation or maintenance of something, 2) [The exercising of] a professional and paid activity which takes place regularly, 3) All operations which must be carried out to develop something (Définitions : travaille).

Evidently these definitions focus greatly on the economic and productive side of work, yet according to scholar Barbara Mennel, work encompasses both productive and reproductive labour (Mennel 20). The French dictionary Larousse does not distinguish between these two forms and does not include reproductive work in its definition, however the INEE, Réseau Inter-agences pour l’Education en Situations d’Urgence, describes reproductive work to be domestic or care work, often carried out by women and not remunerated (Travaille). They also declare this work to be dependent on the social and family structures on which productive work is based (Travaille).

Italian

Work/labour in Italian is “lavoro”. There are no separate words for labour or work; it is all called “lavoro”. Etymology of the word “lavoro” is from Latin: “labour = fatica”

The definition of “lavoro” in Treccani (the Italian dictionary) is very extensive (over 2300 words). The most important notions of “work” are: 1) use of energy (human, animal or mechanical) intended for a specific purpose (more general meaning); 2) application of the physical and intellectual capacities of men to produce a good,  wealth, or in any case to obtain a useful product (more common and concrete), e.g., the fruits of labor; 3) in a more concrete sense, the activity itself applied practically to a specific object, e.g.: women’s work (which traditionally includes needlework, sewing, embroidery, knitting, and domestic work, i.e., in general housework); collective work; 4) a paid activity considered as a means of sustenance, and therefore the exercise of a trade, an art, a profession: she has no other source of income than her own work

The definition in Treccani has a focus on productive labour, but it lacks the aspect of reproductive labour, especially care work that we came across in other examples where labour is portrayed (Giovanna (1955), Tutta la vita davanti (2008) and Roma (2018)). In these films we see the change Barbara Mennel mentions in this productive labour from a collectivity of men and, in the example of Giovanna (1955), also of women in the 20ste century to individuality, with working women struggling with work in isolation in low-paid jobs in the 21^st century in Tutta la vita davanti (2008) and Roma (2018) (Mennel, 2019). Mennel does not distinguish between work and labour, but does show that for women, in addition to the economic factor (earning money), another factor plays a role, namely that of care tasks. Mennel also outlines the change from visible work processes to invisible immaterial work processes due to digitalization and mechanization as we can also see in the film Tutta la vita davanti (2008) where the work of the women is making appointments for the men in the company using telephones and computers. Another interesting aspect is what Masecchia underlines in her article about the film Giovanna: the right to work has a different meaning for women next to earning money, work also means independence from the patriarchy for the women (Masecchia, 2021).

Mini-Conclusion

Across Dutch, French and Italian, the concept of work/labour has a similar meaning: it involves humans directed toward productivity and creation. They all link the notion of work/labour to physical or mental activity which is often connected to an economic outcome. Besides, they all acknowledge the result of work/labour (such as artwork).

Etymologically, the translations of work/labour vary across the languages. Travail in French is historically linked to suffering, Dutch arbeid has a similar origin but Dutch werk emphasizes more on the outcome than the burden of work. Italian lavoro, captures the effort behind the act with less of a negative connotation than French and Dutch. Moreover, Italian and French use lavoro and travail for both work/labour, whereas Dutch makes a distinction between these terms.

Roma

Roma, made by Alfonso Cuarón, follows a year in the life of a wealthy family in Mexico-City in the early 70’s. The story is mainly told through the vision of the indigenous (Mixteco) housekeeper/nanny Cleo, who lives with the family. The family goes through a lot, the father Antonio leaves the family, and Cleo herself goes through a lot as well, such as an unwanted pregnancy.

Types of labour/work

Domestic (reproductive) work

The International Labour Organization (ILO) points out that the meaning (tasks) of a domestic worker vary across languages, and that it even changes over time. But they define domestic work in a broad sense: “work performed in or for a household or households.” This includes a variety of tasks, such as cleaning, childcare and cooking. More than 80% of people (often women) working in the domestic sector are informally employed, which leads to social and legal insecurity (ILO). The Domestic Workers Convention (no 189) led to more laws and rights towards people working in the domestic sector. Examples of these are: fair terms of employment and protection against abuse, harassment and violence. The ILO tries to enhance the rights and dignity of domestic workers globally.

Romani Cultuli has written an analysis of Cleo as a domestic worker. She notes that the repetitive tasks, such as serving dinner or cleaning the table, underscore the unrecognized nature of domestic work (Society). The pacing of the film enhances this repetition, it suggests never-ending work without recognition. Cultuli highlights that the Cleo always being present is crucial for the family’s functioning. Her work allows the family to do other types of work and her labour being amortized over time, makes it truly invisible

Scene analysis: I (16:13)

During this scene, Cleo is cleaning up the tables from the dinner of the family in front of the television. She sits down for a moment beside the couch, next to the youngest boy. He puts her arm around her which indicates a sense of inclusion. But then Sofía asks Cleo to make tea for her husband.

This scene shows how ambiguous the role of Cleo as a domestic worker is in the family. She is included by the boy when he shows affection towards her, but she is still an employee which could make her feel like an outsider. Domestic workers are often part of a family’s daily life, but not embraced as a part of it.

Scene analysis: II (36:00)

Multiple times during the movie, Cleo is asked to clean up dogfeces. Jeff York, journalist for Creative Screenwriting, has symbolized this task as the unacknowledged nature of domestic work. The fact that the dog’s feces is shown a few times, can be seen as a metaphor for the ‘crap’ that Cleo endures in her life (as a worker for the family).

Care work (reproductive work)

Care work is reproductive work. According to the ABC of Women Workers’ Rights and Gender Equality of the International Labour Organization – ILO (2007), it means looking after the physical, psychological, emotional and developmental needs of one or more other people. Care recipients are generally identified as infants, school-age children, people who are ill, persons with a disability, and elderly people.

Care providers typically include public and private health services, state-regulated or public-sector social workers, public or private care-provider agencies, enterprises of employment, voluntary and community organizations, faith-based organizations or networks, and relatives and friends. Different settings and modalities of care work apply to each of these categories.

Carework scenes in Roma

In Roma Cleo sometimes plays with the children, for instance with the youngest; she plays along with him, pretending she is dead like him (11:54)

In the morning Cleo wakes up Sofi with a song in Mixteco; Sofi is hugged extensively (29:00)

Productive Work

Productive work is often considered economically productive (Ivancheva 255), as well as remunerating the individual for their productive input (Ivancheva 253). Sabrina Marchetti defines productive work as working for the production of material goods (3). She claims that this kind of work has traditionally always been attributed to men, whilst women were faced with the predicament of reproductive work (Marchetti 3). This division has been supported by religious and moral views which highlight a woman’s alleged “natural aptitude” in the ‘inferior’ reproductive realm, as opposed to the men’s ‘superior’ productive work (Marchetti 3). However, affective and care work is becoming increasingly commodified, especially forms of bodywork, are growing on the market (Marchetti 4). Yet, this is not a simple solution to bridge the gap between productive and reproductive work (Ivancheva 272). By remunerating reproductive work, the boundaries between work and life blur, not making them separable, therefore complicating the conversion into fully being productive work (Ivancheva 272). In the movie Roma, this is again evident in the scene where Cleo cleans up the plates after dinner, whilst the family watches television (Cuaròn 16:13). As priorly mentioned, the ambiguousness of her work is hereby stressed, as she nestles up next to the boy, but is told to bring him tea. She is remunerated for her work; therefore, it is viewed as productive, however the job involves care tasks and keeps her close to the family, blurring the lines between her work and her life.

Furthermore, the father, Antonio, is portrayed as breadwinner of the family, thereby representing an entity of productive work. This is evident in the scene where Antonio leaves for an alleged trip to Quebec and the mother, Sofía, stays behind with the children and the mother stays behind with the children (Cuarón, 33:03). The idealistic image of the male productive worker slowly unravels as the movie progresses, and in one of the final scenes at dinner, Sofía announces that she will now work for a publishing house, despite being a chemist (Cuarón, 1:55:36). This illustrates the shift of productive work responsibility from the male to the female and breaks the traditional gendered division between productive and reproductive work.

Bibliography

(Alphabetical & Per Language)

General

Cuarón, Alfonso, director. Roma. Netflix, 2018.

Ivancheva, Mariya, and Kathryn Keating. “Revisiting precarity, with care: Productive and reproductive labour in the era of flexible capitalism.” Ephemera – Theory & Politics in Organisation, vol. 20, no. 6, 2020, pp. 251–282.

Marchetti, Sabrina. “Introduction.” Migration and Domestic Work: IMISCOE Short Reader, Springer, 2022, pp. 1–11.

Mennel, Barbara. “Introduction.” Women at Work in Twenty-First-Century European Cinema, University of Illinois Press, 2019, pp. 1–23. JSTOR, Accessed 1 May 2025.

The editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Work (Economics).” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., www.britannica.com/money/work-economics. Accessed 22 May 2025.

Work | English Meaning – Cambridge Dictionary, dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/work. Accessed 22 May 2025.

Dutch

“ARBEID – (WERK).” Etymologiebank. Accessed 22 May 2025.

Culture, Romani. “Roma: Domestic Work Researchers Respond to Highly Acclaimed Film, Part I.” Gender & Society, 19 Feb. 2019. Accessed 10 May 2025.

“Domestic Workers.” International Labour Organization, 11 Apr. 2025

York, Jeff. “The Dog Poop in ‘Roma,’ Chief Brody’s Glasses, and Symbolism on Film.” Creative Screenwriting, 1 Feb. 2019,  Accessed 10 May 2025.

French

“Définitions : Travailler, Être Travaillé – Dictionnaire de Français Larousse.” Dictionnaire de Français Larousse. Accessed 8 May 2025.

“Définitions : Travail, Travaux – Dictionnaire de Français Larousse.” Définitions : Travail, Travaux – Dictionnaire de Français Larousse. Accessed 22 May 2025.

“Travail de Reproduction.” INEE. Accessed 22 May 2025.

Italian

Masecchia, Anna. “Giovanna (1955) and the Others: Factory Women in Reconstruction Italy.” Italian Industrial Literature and Film. Perspectives on the Representation of Postwar Labour. Peter Lang, 2021. 370-380.