Written by: Hadewych Brinkman, Christiaan van Romondt and Marie Kuball

Originally published in June 2025

Introduction

Key Concept 1 highlights the various definitions of ‘labour.’ We now closely zoom in on a specific factor of ‘labour’ by connecting it with gender. This is the concept of feminised labour. The International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) defines feminised labour, or as they call it, “the feminisation of labour” (Kanji 1), as having two separate definitions. The first being “the rapid and substantial increase in the proportions of women in paid labour” (Kanji 1). The second definition takes an alternative view, portraying the concept “to describe the flexibilisation of labour for women and men” (Kanji 1). This means that professions which were priorly thought to solely exist for women, frequently forms of domestic or care work or work which is part-time, informal or home-based, have now become widespread for both sexes (Kanji 1). 

Definitions Per Language

Dutch

There is no explicit definition of feminised labour, or directly translated: gefeminiseerde arbeid in Dutch. ‘Feminiseren’ does have a definition in Encyclo (‘’Feminiseren’’).  There it is stated that feminiseren means making something more female friendly or gaining female characteristics. There is not much information on feminising a workplace, but since 2009 the Dutch government has tried to get more women to work and especially in higher functions, which is called ‘the government feminises’. Another (Belgian) source shows that ‘feminisering op de arbeidsmarkt’ is a development in which there is a growth of women in male dominated workplaces. Feminisering in the field of sociology is defined as the increase of female influences, such as their (political)  values (Rober and Herremans 3). 

Lastly, feminisering van migratie (feminising of migration) is a concept that entails the increasing number of women as labour migrants. The demand for gender specific labour has become more significant in developed countries, for example in healthcare and in the domestic work area. But also, women have become more independent, which is why they can voluntarily move to another country for work. There has also been a growth in the migration of women for marriage expectations, hoping to find a partner,  and in human trafficking in the sex industry (‘’Feminisering van migratie’’). 

English

There is no clear-cut reference to feminised labour in (American-) English dictionaries, such as the Oxford English Dictionary or Merriam-Webster. However, this concept is often used in a wide array of judicial dictionaries and academic textbooks, whether it’s aligned to the (academic) discipline of law, sociology or political science. In these works, it is often referred to as feminisation of labour. 

The Dictionary of Feminist Theory defines feminisation of labour as ‘’The twin process whereby (a) women’s numerical share of the paid labour force rises and (b) the conditions long associated with ‘women’s work’—low pay, job insecurity, part-time or casual hours, weak unionization—spread across the whole workforce.’’ (‘’Feminisation of Labour, ‘’ Dictionary of Feminist Theory 47). A Dictionary of Sociology has a similar definition, as in ‘’A  two-level change in labour markets: first, the growing proportion of women in paid employment; second, the increasing prevalence for all workers of employment patterns stereotypically linked to women’s jobs—flexible, informal, low-status and low-waged.’’ (‘’Feminisation of Labour,’’ A Dictionary of Sociology). Finally, The Encyclopedia of Law and Society: American and Global Perspectives has added an evidential judicial dimension to this concept: ‘’A world-wide trend in which unprecedented numbers of women enter waged work—especially export-processing, domestic service and other precarious sectors—while the characteristics of that work (low remuneration, limited social protection, vulnerability to abuse) become emblematic of labour conditions generally.’’ (‘’Feminization of Labor,’’ Encyclopedia of Law and Society 529). 

Based on these aforementioned definitions, one can distill a general, twofold conceptualisation of feminisation of labour. In this context, feminisation of labour is the dual transformation of labour markets, whereby:

1. More women enter paid work across sectors and regions, and simultaneously
2. The employment conditions long associated with women’s jobs, such as low wages and weak bargaining power, spread to the whole workforce, so that ‘feminised’ precariousness becomes the standard for labour conditions in general. 

French

The French dictionary Larousse provides no concrete definition of feminised labour, or travail feminisé. However, the verb féminiser is defined as giving someone feminine or effeminate characteristics, as well as to make a man lose his masculinity (Définitions). In an alternate context, it means to increase the number of women present in the workplace  (Définitions). 

Whilst in certain and specifically the English context, ‘feminised labour’ refers to the flexibilisation or divergence of labour in jobs formerly attributed to exclusively men or exclusively women (Kanji 1), French sources define ‘feminised labour’ as the increase in women who perform remunerated work (Malochet). The journal Sociologiques Pratiques states that the féminisation des métiers et des professions; the feminisation of jobs and professions, when regarding feminisation as an object, generally refers to the increase in the number of women holding a task or profession which is mainly viewed as masculine, or predominantly carried out by males (Malochet). However, the journal also states that this so-called feminisation can also be regarded as an issue: the growing number of women in the workplace is increasingly becoming a political and sociological concern, as the persistent gender inequalities between male and female employees in terms of pay, status and power are emphasised (Malochet). Hence, there are various ways in which the concept is regarded. 

Similarities and Differences Per Language

Even though there are no specific definitions of feminised labour in dictionaries, there are similarities between the verbs feminiseren and féminiser. In French, English and Dutch, they refer to processes in which something gains female characteristics, or where the amount of women increases such as in the labour market. 

In French, there is more of an emphasis on the social and political implications of the increasing number of women in jobs and the impact of structural inequality. Whereas in Dutch the emphasis is more on the growth of female participation in traditional male job sectors. 

Both languages acknowledge the increasing number of female participation on the job market but they differ in focus. 

Literary Analysis: Penelope by Judith Vanistandael (2021)

Description

De twee levens van Penelope by Judith Vanistendael (2021) is a graphic novel made with aquarel colorings. It is about a mother, who is also a surgeon in a field hospital in Aleppo. She is often away from her husband and daughter for a long period of time to save lives in war zones. Her daughter struggles with puberty and tends to ask her dad for advice instead of Penelope. Penelope already has a hard time reconciling with her family, but her struggles with trauma from losing patients makes this even harder.  

Elements of Feminized Labour:

• Affective Labour

The term affective labour entered post-Marxist theory via Hardt & Negri (1999). This concept is defined as the work that is directly produced or manipulates ‘affects’, such as relationships, emotions and attitudes, rather than tangible goods.  Similarly, Oksala has shown in her study that affective work has been adopted in feminist theory to distinguish it from emotional labour and making it conceptually more precise. In feminist theory, affective labour can be defined as targeting the feelings of others, not the worker’s own emotions, which is defined as emotional labour, that plays an essential role in our postindustrial society in which service economies play a considerable part (Oksala, 284-285).  

The concept of affective labour does appear in many instances in Vanistendael’s novel. For example, in the bathroom scene, Penelope tries to comfort Gelena that she should not worry too much about her grammar test for Latin (Vanistendael 37-38). No physical product changes hands, but emotional stability is generated – a service that, in contemporary service economies, often acquires market value (e.g. coaching, hospitality or therapy). Crucially, Penelope’s affective labour here is unpaid and invisible. 

• Reproductive Labour

Reproductive labour covers the tasks that keep the so-called ‘social factory’ working: running, cooking, raising children and providing emotional support. Feminist political economists such as Federici show that this unpaid or under-paid labour underwrites capital accumulation by producing future workers and restoring current ones. 

Care Work, as defined in Key Concept 1 means “looking after the physical, psychological, emotional and developmental needs of one or more other people.” This has always been a type of labour that ‘fits’ to a female gender (‘’Domestic Workers’’). This concept can be understood as a sub-type of reproductive labour. International Labour Organisation data indicate that women perform about 67 % of paid and unpaid care hours worldwide, and nearly triple the unpaid hours of men (OECD 2024). These percentages are even higher in specific sectors such as nursing and midwifery (Limani). It is often expected by society that these jobs are fulfilled by women because they have a ‘natural role’ since being a woman. Care Work can both be paid (a nurse for example) and unpaid (caring for you children, your partner). Unpaid care work is often not seen as ‘real work’ (Ewig). 

De twee levens van Penelope dramatises these statistics through the lens of feminised labour by adding a contemporary Western perspective on parental roles: because Penelope is abroad, Otto takes on both domestic chores and daily emotional care. The story thus spotlights the tension between professional ambition and the persistent social expectation that women are the ‘natural’ carers. 

This point can be elaborated by examining the scene on page 77. This scene revolves around a conversation between Penelope and her daughter in the kitchen, Penelope mentions that it is a mess and should be cleaned. But the daughter then says that she and Otto have a system, where they have turns cleaning up. Penelope responds by saying ‘Wat doe ik hier dan eigenlijk?’ (What am I actually doing here?). It seems as if the stereotypical function of being a mother in the household  is redundant. Then on page 89, Otto fulfills the stereotypical function of a mother caring for a child that experiences a heartbreak and insecurity. Penelope sees this but is unsure on what to do, it seems like she is uninvolved in her daughter’s life. The care work done by Otto can be seen as feminised in this way. 

• Productive Labour

Productive labour refers to wage-earning work that is seen as economically productive because it generates material goods or services that are valued in the market. This type of labour has traditionally been associated with male roles, particularly in sectors like industry and construction. However, feminist scholarship (Ivancheva 253, Marchetti 3) has pointed out that this framing excludes many forms of socially necessary work. 

The IIED defines productive labour as part of the feminisation process in two ways: first, the increased presence of women in paid employment in the last few decades in a global context; and second, the diffusion of precarious, ‘female-typed’ employment conditions historically associated with women across the broader labour market, such as low pay and job insecurity (Kanji 1).  Demand for low-paid, flexible female labour has been especially acute in industrial sectors affected by tde-industrialisation and labour-market deregulation (Kanji 1-2). In healthcare, too, a clear gendered division persists: men dominate higher-status professions such as medicine and dentistry, whereas women remain concentrated in nursing (Adams). These patterns stem from historically entrenched gender stereotypes embedded in professionals. cultures. Increasingly, however, such assumptions are being challenged, and the resulting ‘feminisation of labour’ is enabling more women to enter higher-profile professions traditionally reserved for men (Adams). In this light, the feminisation of productive labour entails both a numerical and a qualitative shift. 

Penelope, as a field surgeon in Aleppo, embodies this dual shift in Vanistendael’s novel. She participated in a high-skilled, formerly male-dominated profession, while also facing the emotional and psychological toll often overlooked in traditional definitions of productive labour. In this sense, Penelope makes up part of the individuals who realise the so-called feminisation of labour, entering the workforce as a female. Being a mother as well, she is confronted with the struggles of pursuing a career as a woman, with the preconceived notion of having to care for her child as well. On pages 20-21, there are four panels illustrating Penelope’s daughter getting her first period, and underneath, two panels showing Penelope away at work, carrying out a surgery. The grandma has to show her granddaughter how to insert a tampon, whilst Penelope is at work. The panels contain very little text, focusing predominantly on the imagery. This emphasises the struggle of embracing feminised labour because the wide panels emphasise the severity of the event, and Penelope missing out on an important moment in her daughter’s life. According to Benoît Peters’ ‘four conceptions of the page,’ the page can be seen as having a productive use, since the focus lies on its composition: the arrangement of the page impacting its meaning (Peters). The deliberate division between Penelope’s life and her daughter’s, symbolises the push and pull of embracing working life as a woman. 

Conclusion

Key concept 1 asks us to treat the concept of labour more broadly, as an activity that systains bodies, minds and communities, whether it yields a wage or not. The notion of feminised labour sharpens that lens by showing how the who and how of labour are historically gendered. Kanji’s twin definition on rising female participation and the diffusion of female-typed job traits demonstrates that markets do not simply absorb more women; they also redefine work itself in ways that devalue care, flexibility and emotion. 

Seen through this angle, the classic split between productive and reproductive or affective labour collapses. Hardt’s idea of affective/immaterial labour and Oksala’s refinement make clear that much of what counts as contemporary work is already feminized in content if not in workforce share. 

Thus, feminised labor is not a niche category alongside work; it is a structuring principle that reveals how markets allocate recognition, remuneration, and risk. By tracing feminisation, we expose the silent assumptions that still decide whose labour is visible, whose is discounted, and why expanding the definition of labour is inseparable from dismantling gendered hierarchies within it. 

Bibliography

General

Adams, Tracey L. “Gender and feminization in health care professions.” Sociology Compass, vol. 4, no. 7, July 2010, pp. 454–465, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2010.00294.x.

‘’Domestic Workers’’. International Labour Organization, April 11th 2025, www.ilo.org/topics-and-sectors/domestic-workers. Accessed May 26 2025.

Ewig, Christina. ‘’The Feminization of Carework.’’ Gender Policy Report, October 10th 2017, genderpolicyreport.umn.edu/the-feminization-of-carework. Accessed on May 26th 2025

Hardt, Michael. ‘’Affective Labor.’’ boundary 2, vol. 26, no. 2, 1999, pp 89-100. 

Ivancheva , Mariya, and Kathryn Keating . “Revisiting precarity, with care: Productive and reproductive labour in the era of flexible capitalism.” Ephemera – Theory & Politics in Organisation, vol. 20, no. 6, 2020, pp. 251–282, https://ephemerajournal.org/contribution/revisiting-precarity-care-productive-and-reproductive-labour-era-flexible-capitalism. 

Kanji, Nazneen. “World Summit on Sustainable Development.” International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), August 2001, pp. 1–6. 

Limani, Donika. ‘’Where Women Work: Female-Dominated Occupations and Sectors.’’ OLOSTAT blog, International Labour Organization, November 7th 2023, ilostat.ilo.org/blog/where-women-work-female-dominated-occupations-and-sectors/. Accessed on May 27th 2025. 

Marchetti, Sabrina. “Introduction.” Migration and Domestic Work : IMISCOE Short Reader, Springer, 2022, pp. 1–11.

Oksala, Johanna. ‘’Affective Labor and Feminist Politics.’’ Signs: journal of Women in Culture and Society, vol. 41, no. 2, 2016, pp. 281 303. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.1086/683678.

Peters, Benoît. “Four Conceptions of the Page.” Translated by Jesse Cohn. Image Text Journal, vol. 3, no. 3, https://imagetextjournal.com/four-conceptions-of-the-page/. 

Vanistendael, Judith. The Two Lives of Penelope. Europe Comics, 24 Feb. 2021. E-book.

English

‘’Feminisation of Labour.’’ The Dictionary of Feminist Theory. 2nd ed., edited by Maggie Humm, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1995, p. 47.‘’Feminisation of Labour.’’ A Dictionary of Sociology. 5th ed., edited by John Scott, Oxford University Press, 2023. Oxford Reference, www.oxfordreference.com. Accessed on May 27th 2025. 

‘’Feminization of Labor.’’ Encyclopedia of Law and Society: American and Global Perspectives, edited by David S. Clark, vol. 2, Sage, 2007, pp. 529–31.

Dutch

‘’Feminiseren.’’ Encyclo, www.encyclo.nl/begrip/feminiseren. Accessed on May 26th 2025. 

‘’Feminiseren van migratie.’’ Gender Equality Glossary & Thesaurus, European Institute for Gender Equality, 2016, https://eige.europa.eu/bs/publications-resources/thesaurus/terms/1279?language_content_entity=nl. Accessed on May 26th 2025. 

Rober, Ariane, and Wim Herremans. Over feminisering en de (verborgen) genderkloof op de Vlaamse arbeidsmarkt. Arbeidsmarktflits, Steunpunt Werk en Sociale Economie, 28 Jan. 2015, https://lirias.kuleuven.be/retrieve/307895. Accessed on May 26th 2025. 

French

“Définitions : Féminiser – Dictionnaire de Français Larousse.” Larousse.Fr, www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/f%C3%A9miniser/33212#:~:text=1.,%C3%A0%20un%20homme%20sa%20virilit%C3%A9.&text=2.,de%20femmes%20dans%20une%20profession. Accessed 23 May 2025.

Malochet, Guillaume. “La féminisation des métiers et des professions. Quand la sociologie du travail croise le genre.” Sociologies pratiques, vol. 1, no. 14, 2007,  pp.91-99. CAIRN.INFO, shs.cairn.info/revue-sociologies-pratiques-2007-1-page-91?lang=fr.